Chemical Warfare in World War 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chemical Warfare in World War 1 - Essay Example World War I saw the development of weapons, which were deadlier to a degree than had never before been expected. Among the deadliest weapons that had never been used before were the 420 mm guns, which the Germans used to bombard France from Liege, Belgium. This led the countries to look for developing deadlier weapons with the help of their intellectuals, as it was clear that weapons would greatly determine the countries that won the war. (Hilmas, Smart & Hill 14). Therefore, as expected, deadlier weapons were developed by the countries. However, the deadliest and most inhumane of all the weapons developed was the poisonous gas, which was made by the German genius and Nobel laureate Fritz Haber (Bosco, Bosco & Bowman 38). Poisonous gas Prior to the World War I, several European countries including Germany, France and Britain had signed a treaty known as the Hague Convention on war on land in 1907 which forbid the use of poisonous gas in war. However, this did not deter the use of poi sonous gases in World War I (Stoltzenberg 151). Germany first used chemical weapons on British and Indian troops in 1914. Berlin was triggered to use chemical weapons after France had used on them. The chemical weapon used by the Germans was dianisidine chlorosulphonate, a chemical that causes irritation to the mucus membrane (Hilmas, Smart & Hill 14). However, the use of chemical weapons, which lead to widespread outcry by the rest of the world, was by Fritz Haber. (Hilmas, Smart & Hill 14).

Tahiti and the French Polynesia :: essays research papers

Spread across nearly 2,000,000 square miles of the South Pacific, in an area as large as the continent of Europe, lies the Territory of French Polynesia and its principal island, Tahiti. Settlers from Southeast Asia are thought to have first arrived in the Marquesas Islands, in the northeastern part of what is today called French Polynesia, around 300 AD and in the Society Islands, including Tahiti, to the west by about 800 AD. Prior to the first European contact, the islands were ruled by a hierarchy of hereditary tribal chiefs. The first Europeans to visit the area were the English explorers Samuel Wallis in 1767 and James Cook in 1769. French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville arrived in 1768 and claimed the islands for France. In the late 1700s occasional ships arrived in the islands, most notably the H.M.S. Bounty in 1788, captained by William Bligh. The first missionaries, from the London Missionary Society, arrived in the islands in 1797. By 1815, with the support of the most powerful ruling family in the islands, the Pomares, the British missionaries had secured a strong influence in much of the Society Islands, doing everything possible to eliminate traditional Polynesian culture by barring traditional dance and music as well as destroying carvings and temples associated with native religion. The French continued to hold influence over the Marquesian Archipelago and eventually were successful in expelling the British and securing influence over much of what today constitutes French Polynesia, leaving the ruling Pomare family as little more than figureheads. In 1880, King Pomare V was forced to abdicate, and a French colony was proclaimed. By 1901, the colony included the Austral Islands, the Gambier Archipelago, the Marquesas Islands, the Society Islands and the Tuamotu atolls to the southeast. The first half of the twentieth century saw periods of nationalistic protest in the colonies which were by then called the Établissements franà §ais d'Ocà ©anie (French Pacific Settlements). It was not, however, until after World War II, when Tahitians who had served France returned home, that pressure forced the French government to extend French citizenship to all islanders. The first territorial assembly was established in 1946, and by 1949 the islands obtained representation in the French Assembly. In 1957, the territory was officially renamed the Territory of French Polynesia. The Republic of France is represented in the territory by a high commissioner appointed by the Republic. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, limited autonomy was granted to the territorial government to control socioeconomic policy but not defense, law and order, or foreign affairs.

Anxiety Among Alcoholics and Non-Alcoholics Essay

Abstract Alcohol is one of the most widely used drug substances in the world. For many people, drinking alcohol is nothing more than a pleasant way to relax. People with alcohol use disorders, however, drink to excess, endangering both themselves and others. In the mental health area alcoholism is caused mostly by depression, anxiety and stress, on the other hand it also leads to depression and stress. The present study aims to compare depression and anxiety among alcoholics and non- alcoholics. It was assumed that depression and anxiety may be the risk factors for alcoholism. A sample of 100 people (50 alcoholics and 50 non-alcoholics) was randomly selected from Delhi. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) were used to collect data on depression and anxiety. t-test was administered to compare two groups. The result of the study showed that alcoholic group was higher on depression as well as anxiety than the non alcoholic group, and it was also found that there is n o clear cut casual relationship between alcoholism and depression and anxiety. Alcoholism is perhaps most strongly associated with antisocial personality disorder and drug abuse, but its relationship to other forms of psychopathology has become increasingly evident. In particular, investigations of alcoholic samples indicate a strong co-occurrence of alcoholism with diverse form of anxiety and depressive disorder (Barbor et al, 1992; Chambless et al, 1987; Hasegawa 1991; keller 1994; Nunes, Quitkin & Berman, 1988; Penick, 1994; Schuckit, Irwin & Brown, 1990). ______________________________________________________________________ *Associate professor, Deptt. Of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh **Research scholar, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. According to Nijhawan (1972) Anxiety, one of the most pervasive psychological phenomenons of the modern era refers to a â€Å"persistent distressing psychological state arising from an inner conflict†. Depression can be defined as â€Å"a state of mind, or more specifically, a mental disorder, characterized by lowering of the individual’s vitality, his mood, his desires, hopes, aspirations and of his self-esteem. It may range from no more than a mild feeling of tiredness and sadness to the most profound state of apathy with complete, psychotic disregard for reality.† (Mendelssohn, 1963). Alcoholism can lead people into serious trouble, and can be physically and mentally destructive. Currently alcohol use is involved in half of all crimes, murders, accidental deaths, and suicides. There are also many health problems associated with alcohol use such as brain damage, cancer, heart disease, diseases of the liver, depression anxiety and other mental disorders. Results from community surveys and epidemiologic samples indicate that substantial comorbidity also exists for depression, anxiety and alcoholism in the general population (Regier et al, 1990; Helzer & Pryzbeck, 1988; Kendler et al, 1995). The high co-occurrence of these syndromes, therefore, represents a significant clinical and public health issue that is likely to affect a substantial proportion of the general population. Although the comorbidity of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders has been extensively documented in both clinical and epidemiologic investigations, the specific mechanisms underlying these associations remain a source of debate. One widely accepted hypothesis is that these forms of comorbidity reflect a causal relationship of alcoholism with anxiety and depression. Support for a causal association is based partly on observations that alcohol is commonly used to self- medicate symptoms of negative affect, and so, alcoholism often develops as a secondary diagnosis to anxiety and depression (Meyer & Kranzler,1990; Hesselbrock, Meyer & Keener,1985; Lader,1972; Merikangas et al,1985). The 18-month follow-up of participants of the Psychiatric Morbidity among Adults Living in Private Households, 2000 survey (Singleton & Lewis, 2003) provides an opportunity to determine whether excessive alcohol consumption and abnormal patterns of use are risk factors for incident anxiety and depression in the general population. The study also examined the reverse relationship, considering whether anxiety and depression are risk factors for the development of abnormal patterns of alcohol consumption. However, evidence for a causal relationship is not unidirectional as alcoholism is often observed as a primary disorder, and the presence of problem drinking itself may generate severe anxiety or depressive syndromes (Mendelson & Mello, 1979, Nathan, O’Brien & Lowenstein, 1971; Schuckit, Irwin & Smith, 1994; Stockwell, Hodgson & Rankin, 1982). Heavy alcohol consumption has been implicated in the development of anxiety and depression (Schuckit, 1983). Many cross-sectional studies have identified considerable comorbidity between anxiety and depression, and alcohol abuse. For example, data from four large community based epidemiological studies (n>422 000) in Europe and the USA consistently demonstrated a two- to threefold increase in the lifetime prevalence of anxiety and depression in those with DSM–III or DSM–III–R alcohol abuse or dependence (Swendsen et al, 1998). If anxiety disorders and alcoholism are casually related, there should be a high rate of alcoholism among patients being treated for anxiety disorders. Two studies (Torgersen, 1986; Cloninger et al, 1981) of the prevalence of alcoholism in patients being treated for anxiety neurosis were identified. These investigations suggest a lifetime population prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence of approximately 14%. The survey of the relevant literature made it quite obvious that much of the studies show a prevalence of depression and anxiety among alcoholics. However, previous studies have also pointed out the possibility of alcoholism as risk factors for depression and anxiety. At the same time, literature does not provide any clear cut direction towards the casual relationship between alcoholism and depression and anxiety. Thus, despite the strong association of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders, no universal consensus has been reached regarding the specific mechanisms underlying these associations. The present study aims to identify depression and anxiety among alcoholic and non-alcoholic peoples. Method: Sample: sample of the present study consisted of 100 subjects (50 alcoholics and 50 non alcoholics). The alcoholics were identified through survey from different living areas (including rural, urban and semi-urban) of Delhi and 50 alcoholics were randomly selected for the study. In the same way the non-alcoholic subjects were also selected randomly from different parts of Delhi. The age range of the subjects was between 25 to 50 years. Tools: â€Å"Beck Depression Inventory† BDI -2nd was designed by Beck, Steer & Brown (1996). This self report scale has shown to document levels of depression. BDI -2nd edition contains 21 items, each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 to 3. The cut offs used are 0-13 Minimal depression; 14-19 Mild depression; 20-28 Moderate depression; and 29-63 Severe Depression. Higher total scorer indicates more severe depression symptoms. â€Å"Beck Anxiety Inventory† was designed Beck, Epstein, Brown, Steer (1988). This self report scale has shown to document levels of Anxiety symptoms in a valid and consistent manner. BAI contains 21 items each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 to 3. Each symptom item has four possible answer choices: not at all (assigned value =o); Mildly (it did not bother me much) (assigned value=1); Moderately (it was unpleasant but I could stand it) (assigned value =2); and Severely (I could barely stand it) (assigned value =3). The values for each item are summed together to yield an overall or score for all 21 symptoms that can range between 0 and 63 points. A total score of 0-7 is interpreted as a minimal level of Anxiety, 8-15 as ‘mild’, 16-25 as ‘moderate’ and 26-63 as ‘severe’. The BAI is psychometrically sound. Interval consistency ÃŽ ± =.92 to.94, for adults and test-retest (one week interval) reliability is .75. Procedure: The test for depression and anxiety were administered on the subjects individually after establishing the rapport with them. Each and every item was explained to the subject, and then he was asked to respond truly for the item. Thus data was collected for depression and anxiety from alcoholic and non-alcoholic people. t-test was applied to find out the significance of difference between the Mean scores of different groups. Results: TABLE-1 Showing comparison of Mean for depression and anxiety scores between the alcoholics and non-alcoholics Variables| Groups| N| Mean| Std.deviation| t | df| P| depression| Alcoholic Nonalcoholic| 50 50| 35.7600 17.1000| 10.17913 6.15530| 11.092| 98| .01*| Anxiety| Alcoholicnonalcoholic| 50 50| 38.0800 18.3200| 11.55261 6.18570| 10.662| 98| .01*| *Significant at .01 level of confidence TABLE-1 further shows the results obtained by the comparison of alcoholics and non alcoholic group for depression and anxiety. The obtained results show that the mean depression score (M=35.7600) for alcoholic people is higher than the mean depression score (M=17.1000) for non alcoholic people, and the difference between the two means (t=11.092) is statistically significant at .01 level of confidence. Consequently it reveals the findings that alcoholic people have higher depression than the non-alcoholics. The TABLE-1 also shows the results of the comparison of alcoholic and non-alcoholic people on anxiety. The mean anxiety scores (M=38.0800) of alcoholics is found very much higher than the mean anxiety scores (M=18.3200) of the non-alcoholics and the two means difference (t=10.662) is statistically significant at .01 level of confidence. It indicates that alcoholic people have higher anxiety than the non-alcoholic people. Discussion: The basis of the above results may safely be concluded that the alcoholics are highly depressed and extremely anxious than the non-alcoholic people. However, the high prevalence of these anxiety and depressives’ symptoms does not necessarily mean that these alcoholic individuals will demonstrate the long term course or require the long term treatments associated with DSM-III-R major depressive and anxiety disorders. The temporal nature of the association between Depression & Anxiety and alcohol is difficult to determine from studies, which uncertainty arising as to whether alcohol is a risk factor or a form of self –medication. The finding of the present study support the findings of Hartka et al, (1991) that reported a significant correlation between baseline consumption of alcohol and depression at follow-up based on data from eight longitudinal studies. However, in this analysis control of confounders was limited to age, gender and interval between measurements. Overall, our findings are contradictory with those of Wang & Patten (2001) who observed no excess morbidity among those who drank daily, those who drank in binges (more than five drinks), those who had more than one drink daily, and among drinkers in general. Alcohol dependence was not considered. Similarly, in a randomly selected community cohort with follow-up at 3 and 7 years, Moscato et al (1997) found no excess incidence of depressive symptoms among those with ‘alcohol problems’ (defined as a DSM–IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence or abuse or drinking more than five drinks a day on one or more occasions per week). It may safely be concluded on the bases of previous literature and result of the present study that there is no clear cut casual relationship between depressive and anxiety disorder and alcoholism. In the similar way our findings of the study show that the alcoholics are more depressive and anxious than the non alcoholics. Though it does not show any clear cut picture either alcohol is risk factor for depression and anxiety or depression and anxiety is a risk factor for alcoholism. References Babor, T., Wolfson, A., Boivin, D., Radouco-Thomas, S., Clark, W. (1992). Alcoholism, culture, and psychopathology: A comparative study of French, French Canadian, and American alcoholics. In: Helzer, J., Canino, G. (eds): Alcoholism in North America, Europe, and Asia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 182-195. Beck, A.T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., Steer, R.A. (1988). â€Å"An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric Properties, Journal of Consulting and clinical Psychology; 56:893-897 Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, B.K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory 2nd Ed.). San Antonio. Tx; Psychological Corporation. Chambless, D., Cherney, J., Caputo, G., Rheinstein, B. (1987). Anxiety disorders and alcoholism: A study with inpatient alcoholics. J Anxiety Disord; 1:29-40. Cloninger, C.R., Martin, R.L., Clayton, P., Guze, S.B. (1981). A blind follow-up and family study of anxiety neurosis: preliminary analysis of the St Louis 500, in Anxiety: New Research and changing Concepts, Edited by Klein, D.F., Rabkin, J. New York, Raven Press, Hartka, E., Johnstone, B., Leino,V. (1991). A meta-analysis of depressive symptomatology and alcohol consumption over time. British Journal of Addiction; 86: 1283-1298. Hasegawa, K., Mukasa, H., Nakazawa, Y., HK., Nakamura, K. (1991). Primary and secondary depression in alcoholism-clinical features and family history. Drug Alcohol Depend; 27:275-281. Helzer, J., Pryzbeck, T. (1988). The co-occurrence of alcoholism with other psychiatric disorders in the general population and its impact on treatment. J Stud Alcohol; 49:219-224. Hesselbrock, M., Meyer, R., Keener, J. (1985). Psychopathology in hospitalized alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry; 42:1050- 1055. Keller, M. (1994). Dysthymia in clinical practice: Course, outcome and impact on the community. Acta Psychiatr Scand; 383(Suppl):24-34. Kendler, K., Waiters, E., Neale, M., Kessler, R., Heath, A., Eaves, L. The structure of the genetic and environmental risk factors for six major psychiatric disorders in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:374-383. Lader, M. (1972). The nature of anxiety. Br J Psychiatry; 121: 481-491. Mendelson, J., Mello, N. (1979). Medical progress: Biologic concomitants of alcoholism. N Engl J Med; 301:912-921. Mendelssohn, V.P. (1963). Depression in incyclopedia of mental health. Vol.II, Franklin Walts, Inc. Merikangas, K., Leckman, J., Prusoff, B., Pauls, D., Weissman, M. (1985). Familial transmission of depression and alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry ; 42:367-372. Meyer, R., Kranzler, H. (1990). Alcohol abuse/dependence and co-morbid anxiety and depression. In: Maser J, Cloninger C (eds): Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press: 283-292. Moscato, B., Russell, M., Zielezny, M. (1997). Gender differences in the relation between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems: a longitudinal perspective. American Journal of Epidemiology; 146: 966-974. Nathan, P., O’Brien, J., Lowenstein, L. (1971). Operant studies of chronic alcoholism: Interaction of alcohol and alcoholics. In: Roach, P., Mclssac, W., Creaven, P. (eds): Biological Aspects of Alcohol. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press;. Nijhawan, H. K. (1972). Anxiety in school children. New Delhi : Wiley Eastern Private Limited. Nunes, E., Quitkin, F., Berman, C. (1988). Panic disorder and depression in female alcoholics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry; 49:441- 443. Penick, E., Powell, B., Nickel, E., Bingham, S., Riesenmy, K., Read, M. (1994). Comorbidity of lifetime psychiatric disorder among male alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res; 18:1289-1293. Regier, D., Farmer, M., Rae, D., Locke, B., Keith, S., Judd, L. (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse: Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study. JAMA; 264:2511-2518. Schuckit, M. (1983). Alcoholic patients with secondary depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 711-714. Schuckit, M., Hesselbrock, V. (1994). Alcohol dependence and anxiety disorders: What is the relationship? Am J Psychiatry, 151:1723-1734. Schuckit, M., Irwin, M., Brown, S. (1990) .The history of anxiety symptoms among 171 primary alcoholics. J Stud Alcohol; 51:34-41. Schuckit, M., Irwin, M., Smith, T. (1994). One-year incidence rate of major depression and other psychiatric disorders in 239 alcoholic men. Addiction ; 89:441-445. Schuckit, M., Tipp, J., Bergman, M., Reich, W., Hesselbrock, V., Smith, T. (1997). Comparison of induced and independent major depressive disorder in 2,945 alcoholics. Am J Psychiatry; 154:948-957. Singleton, N. Lewis, G. (2003). Better or Worse: A Longitudinal Study of the Mental Health of Adults Living in Private Households in Great Britain. London: Stationery Office. . Stockwell, T., Hodgson, R., Rankin, H. (1982). Tension reduction and the effects of prolonged alcohol consumption. Br J Addict; 77:65-73. Stockwell, T., Smail, P., Hodgson, R., Canter, S. (1984). Alcohol dependence and phobic anxiety states. II. A retrospective study. Br J Psychiatry; 144:58-63. Swendsen, J., Merikangas, K., Canino,G. (1998). The comorbidity of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders in four geographic communities. Comprehensive Psychiatry; 39:176-184. Torgersen, S. (1986). Childhood and family characteristics in panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry; 143:630-632 Wang, J. & Patten, S. B. (2001). Alcohol consumption and major depression: findings from a follow-up study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; 46: 632-638.

Who Invented the Periodic Table

Do you know who described the first periodic table of the elements that organized  the elements by increasing atomic weight and according to trends in their properties?   If you answered Dmitri Mendeleev, then you might be incorrect. The actual inventor of the periodic table is someone rarely mentioned in chemistry history books: Alexandre-Emile Bà ©guyer de Chancourtois. Key Takeaways: Who Invented the Periodic Table? While Dmitri Mendeleev usually gets credit for the invention of the modern periodic table in 1869, Alexandre-Emile Bà ©guyer de Chancourtois organized the elements by atomic weight five years earlier.While Mendeleev and Chancourtois arranged elements by atomic weight, the modern periodic table is ordered according to increasing atomic number (a concept unknown in the 19th century.)Lothar Meyer (1864) and John Newlands (1865) both proposed tables that organized elements according to periodic properties. History Most people think Mendeleev invented the modern periodic table. Dmitri Mendeleev presented his periodic table of the elements based on increasing atomic weight on March 6, 1869, in a presentation to the Russian Chemical Society. While Mendeleevs table was the first to gain some acceptance in the scientific community, it was not the first table of its kind. Some elements were known since ancient times, such as gold, sulfur, and carbon. Alchemists began to discover and identify new elements in the 17th century. By the beginning of the  19th century, about 47 elements had been discovered, providing enough data for chemists to begin to see patterns.  John Newlands had published his Law of Octaves in 1865. The Law of Octaves had two elements in one box and did not allow space for undiscovered elements, so it was criticized and did not gain recognition. A year earlier (1864) Lothar Meyer published a periodic table that described the placement of 28 elements. Meyers periodic table ordered the elements into groups arranged in order of their atomic weights. His periodic table arranged the elements into six  families according to their valence, which was the first attempt to classify the elements according to this property. While many people are aware of Meyers contribution to the understanding of element periodicity and the development of the periodic table, many have not heard of Alexandre-Emile Bà ©guyer de Chancourtois. De Chancourtois was the first scientist to arrange the chemical elements in order of their atomic weights. In 1862 (five years before Mendeleev),  de Chancourtois presented a paper describing his arrangement of the elements to the French Academy of Sciences. The paper was published in the Academys journal, Comptes Rendus, but without the actual table. The periodic table did appear in another publication, but it was not as widely read as the academys journal. De Chancourtois was a geologist and his paper dealt primarily with geological concepts, so his periodic table did not gain the attention of the chemists of the day. Difference From the Modern Periodic Table Both de Chancourtois and Mendeleev organized elements by increasing atomic weight. This makes sense because the structure of the atom was not understood at the time, so the concepts of protons and isotopes had yet to be described. The modern periodic table orders the elements according to increasing atomic number rather than increasing atomic weight. For the most part, this doesnt change the order of the elements, but its an important distinction between older and modern tables. The earlier tables were true periodic tables since they grouped the elements according to ​the  periodicity of their chemical and physical properties. Sources Mazurs, E. G. Graphical Representations of the Periodic System During One Hundred Years. University of Alabama Press, 1974, Tuscaloosa, Ala.Rouvray, D.H.; King, R. B. (eds).The Mathematics of the Periodic Table. Nova Science Publishers, 2006, Hauppauge, N.Y.Thyssen, P.; Binnemans, K., Gschneidner Jr., K. A.; Bà ¼nzli, J-C.G; Vecharsky, Bà ¼nzli, eds. Accommodation of the Rare Earths in the Periodic Table: A Historical Analysis. Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths. Elsevier, 2011, Amsterdam.Van Spronsen, J. W. The Periodic System of Chemical Elements: A History of the First Hundred Years. Elsevier, 1969, Amsterdam.Venable, F. P. The Development of the Periodic Law. Chemical Publishing Company, 1896, Easton, Pa.